For this the author starts by analyzing how the rise of the digital era and smartphones have dramatically changed the economic landscape of cultural goods. To understand these effects the author has focused his research around the music industry that seems to be the best example of how streaming has changed the consumption, production, and other parts of the industry as a whole. These changes relate not only to the consumption of these goods but also to the business models, the international trade of these goods and how the producers of such goods perceive the new technologies. The emergence of streaming has provided a general change on how different products are consumed around the world. We propose a way of estimating that parameter using standard econometric methods with readily available data and demonstrate our calibration procedure in a case study of Italy. Either way, a crucial element is represented by the distance elasticity parameter, which the user is expected to provide exogenously. Our approach can be equivalently characterized as an application of the gravity-RAS or the doubly constrained gravity model method. This paper discusses a calibration procedure for estimating bilateral trade between the regions of a country.
2 A calibrated gravity model of interregional trade Abstract Lack of interregional trade data is often a major obstacle when doing economic analysis at the subnational level. The paper has benefited from the helpful comments of Umed Temursho and three anonymous referees. Acknowledgement The views expressed in this paper belong to the author and should not be attributed to the European Commission or its services. Lack of interregional trade data is often a major obstacle when doing economic analysis at the subnational level. Possible extensions of this work are discussed. Our findings indicate that there is spatial dependence in student achievement across countries linked to the geographic proximity between countries. We confirm the existence of positive and statistically significant average spillover effects thus, estimates based on linear regression underestimate the impact of school autonomy. Overall, school autonomy raises student achievement in Reading, Mathematics, and Science. The spatial autoregressive model is applied to capture both spillover and local effects of school autonomy. This paper examines spillover effects of one widespread education policy, school autonomy, on student achievement using three waves of data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Ignoring spillover effects between countries can lead to biased estimates of policy effects and suboptimal decision making. When evaluating the effect of an education policy, it is worth considering both local effects of the policy and its spillover effects on other countries. Countries look towards each other to identify ways that improve the quality of their education systems. National education reforms do not occur in isolation. In conclusion, the claim that China’s aid allocation is different must be qualified. France and the UK also commit significantly more aid to their former colonies. This latter result contrasts with Western donors, which allocate more aid to their trade partners.
Furthermore, we find no evidence that commercial interests, such as trade or access to natural resources, determine Chinese aid allocation. As most Western donors, China commits more aid to poorer countries. However, China is not a purely selfish donor.
While Germany, Japan, the USA, and the UK assign high importance to recipient need, France’s and China’s allocation models are, for a large part, driven by variables that relate to self-interest: trade in the case of France, and the adherence to the “One-China policy” in the case of China. We find that donors differ markedly in how they allocate aid. We use regression analysis and a rigorous variance decomposition method to measure the importance of various factors in predicting aid commitments. For the period 2000–2012, we compare China’s aid allocation behaviour to that of the five largest donor countries globally: France, Germany, Japan, the UK, and the USA. China’s involvement in African countries has been criticized for being guided by self-interest rather than recipient need or merit.
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